God of Heaven: Natural Knowledge of the Creator

“For what can be known about God is plain to them, because God has shown it to them.  For his invisible attributes, namely, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly perceived, ever since the creation of the world, in the things that have been made” (Romans 1:19–20 NKJV).

Early Lutherans affirmed that all people can know there is a Creator God through reason, observation of the natural world, and the testimony of conscience. And this natural knowledge of God can be seen through the writings of many pre-Christian Gentiles.

Martin Luther (1483–1546)
Martin Luther began with sola Scriptura, but recognized that the Scriptures themselves teach a natural knowledge of God. In his Lectures on Genesis, Luther taught, “The creatures of God, heaven and earth, sun and moon, bear witness to their Creator, so that even the heathen cannot deny there is a God.”[i] "The heathen also have this understanding; they know that there is a supreme deity, that he must be worshiped, called upon, and praised, and that one should take refuge in him in all dangers. . . . They call God a helper, kind, and forgiving."[ii]

In his Lectures on Galatians, Luther examined the twofold knowledge of God, contrasting what the Galatians knew about the Creator before their conversations and what they came to know through the Gospel: "There is a twofold knowledge of God: the general and the particular. All men have the general knowledge, namely, that God is, that He has created heaven and earth, that He is just, that He punishes the wicked, etc. But what God thinks of us, what He wants to give and to do to deliver us from sin and death and to save us—which is the particular and the true knowledge of God—this men do not know."[iii] "The forms of worship and the religion that have been and remained among all nations are abundant evidence that at some time all men have had a general knowledge of God."[iv]

Addressing Paul’s natural-law arguments to the Romans, Luther focused on the universal knowledge of a Creator. "The very order of nature itself, which all peoples perceive, cries out that there is some eternal being who is God."[v] “For all men have this knowledge naturally imprinted on their hearts, that there is a God, and that He is to be worshipped. This is evident from the fact that even the Gentiles, who have no law, do by nature the things contained in the law, showing the work of the law written in their hearts.”[vi]

Commenting on the knowledge of God by the pagans encountered by Jonah, the reluctant missionary, Luther explained that there is a “universal knowledge of God among all the heathen” and “the whole world talks about the Godhead and natural reason is aware that this Godhead is something superior to all other things.”[vii] Such a light is “innate in the hearts of all men; and this light cannot be subdued or extinguished.”[viii] There are “some people, for instance, the Epicureans, Pliny, and the like, who deny this with their lips.”[ix] But they do it by force and want to quench this light in their hearts. “They are like people who purposely stop their ears or pinch their eyes shut to close out sound and sight. However, they do not succeed in this; their conscience tells them otherwise."[x]

Martin Chemnitz (1522–1586)
Martin Chemnitz taught that creation universally reveals God’s existence. “The contemplation of the creatures and the order of the universe lead the mind to acknowledge that there is a God, eternal, wise, and powerful, who is the cause of all things.”[xi]

There are limits to this natural knowledge of God. “From the works of creation, men may know that God exists and that He is good and powerful, but this knowledge does not extend to the mystery of His will for salvation, which is hidden except through the Gospel.”[xii] "The natural knowledge of God, derived from the creatures, reveals His law but not His Gospel; for the mystery of Christ is revealed only through the Word of Scripture."[xiii]

Summarizing Paul’s arguments to the gentile Athenians in Acts 17, based upon the natural knowledge of God, Chemnitz focused on God as the necessary first cause of all things, and God as the intelligent mind governing the universe. “[I]t is necessary that there be a first cause form which all natural processes take their origin and are moved and governed.”[xiv] “[W]e are the produce of an intelligent mind. For that which is devoid of reason cannot do what one possessed of reason can do.”[xv] There is “absolutely no doubt that this natural knowledge [of God] has been revealed so that we will seek God.”[xvi]

Johann Gerhard (1582–1637)
Johann Gerhard affirmed the revelation of God in nature. “The creation of the world is a mirror in which we behold the existence, wisdom, and power of God, so that all men, even without the written law, may know there is a God.”[xvii] He further elaborated, “Gentile philosophers, from contemplating the heavens and the earth, concluded that God exists.”[xviii]

Gerhard cited with approval Aristotle’s argument for the existence of God based upon causation. "Aristotle, in his Metaphysics, concludes that there must be a first mover, eternal and unchangeable, which we call God, because an infinite regress of causes is impossible."[xix] "Because all effects result from a prior cause, all effects observable in nature must eventually trace back to a first cause, which [...] we all call God."[xx] “Human reason, when it considers the chain of causes in the world, must conclude that there is a first cause, uncaused and eternal, which is God, as even the philosophers have acknowledged.”[xxi]

“The heavens and the earth, with their marvelous order and beauty, proclaim the existence of a divine artificer, whose wisdom and power are evident to all who reflect upon creation.”[xxii] However, this natural revelation does not show the way of salvation. "The light of nature shows God’s power and law, but the light of Scripture reveals His grace and the way of salvation."[xxiii]

In short, the Lutheran reformers saw creation as a universal testimony to God’s existence and power. And their views are confirmed by the widespread belief in a Supreme Creator God, seen throughout the earth in pre-Christian Gentile cultures.

Natural Knowledge of God among the Heathen
Thoughtful people throughout history have acknowledged that there is one Supreme Creator.

Ancient Egyptian Monotheism (c. 3000 BC)
During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, around 3000 BC, when the Great Pyramid of Giza was a marvel of new construction, Egyptian civilization flourished with a sophisticated religious and social order. At the heart of early Egyptian theology was Neter, the supreme Creator who embodied divine perfection. Self-existent and immortal, Neter presided over the heavens as the God of all creation, transcending the physical world yet imbuing it with order.[xxiv]

Unlike the later pantheon of Egyptian gods tied to specific domains, Neter was the ultimate source of existence, superior to deities like Ra (sun), Osiris (afterlife), and Hathor (fertility), who served as his agents.[xxv] Ptah-Hetep, a vizier and sage under Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi, exemplified this belief in Neter’s supremacy. His Precepts, composed around 3000 BC, are among the earliest surviving works of moral and spiritual guidance, inscribed on papyrus and stone to outline “the whole duty of man” to God and society.[xxvi]

Ptah-Hetep taught that Neter holds all people accountable, from the humblest to the mightiest. For the farmer, diligence is a divine mandate: “If you have ground to till, labor in the field which God has given you.”[xxvii] For the elite, humility reflects Neter’s stewardship: “If you have become governor of the city, be not hard-hearted on account of your advancement, because you have become merely the guardian of the things which God has provided.”[xxviii] He further stated, “The greatness of Neter is seen in the works he has made; the sky, the earth, and all living things proclaim his power and wisdom.”[xxix]

Ptah-Hetep’s teachings emphasize Neter’s role as a moral arbiter who ensures the cosmic balance that sustains creation. Rituals to Neter were rare, as his transcendence made him less approachable than subordinate gods like Ra. However, in times of national crisis, such as floods or invasions, pharaohs and priests invoked Neter through grand ceremonies, offering incense, gold, or sacred texts to align Egypt with his divine will.

Mesopotamian Sky God (c. 3000–1600 BC)
In the cradle of civilization, Mesopotamian cultures—Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian—developed sophisticated religious systems preserved in cuneiform inscriptions on clay tablets. Central to their cosmology was Anu or An, the God of the heavens, revered as the supreme Creator who fashioned the cosmos and governs its order.

Cuneiform inscriptions from about 3000 BC to the 1st millennium BC consistently portray Anu as the preeminent Deity residing in the heavens, whose eternal power and divine nature are evident in creation. An Akkadian inscription attributed to Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BC) declares: "By the command of Anu, the great God of heaven, and Inanna, I, Sargon, conquered the lands."[xxx]

Sumerian temple hymns from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC) stressed Anu’s celestial dominion: "An, [in] the great heaven, has established the temple; its foundation is set in the sky."[xxxi] “Anu, king of the heavens, whose word established the stars and the earth, his power is known in all lands through the order of creation.”[xxxii]

Old Babylonian prayers (c. 1800–1600 BC) further affirm Anu’s transcendence: "O Anu, exalted one, whose dwelling is in the heavens, hear my plea."[xxxiii] This invocation highlights Anu’s celestial residence and supreme status, accessible only in times of great need.

El, Canaanite Creator (c. 2500–1200 BC)
In the ancient Levant, spanning modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, Canaanite civilizations left a rich legacy of religious thought preserved in texts and inscriptions. At the heart of their cosmology was El, the supreme Creator God. El fashioned the heavens, earth, gods, and humanity, residing on a cosmic mountain, symbolizing his celestial dominion.

The Ugaritic texts declare, “El, the mighty one, has shaped the mountains and the seas; his hand formed the heavens, and all creatures bow to his eternal will.”[xxxiv]

El’s influence extended across the Levant, appearing as “El Elyon” (Most High) in Phoenician inscriptions and as a generic term for “God” in Akkadian and Aramaic texts, showing his widespread veneration. Archaeological evidence, including clay tablets and cultic sites, confirms El’s recognition prior to Abraham.[xxxv]

Early evidence comes from the Ebla tablets (c. 2500 BC), where names like “Who is like El/Ilu?” appear, indicating veneration of El (or Ilu, the Semitic term for “God”) as a divine entity, in personal and place names, reflecting an early recognition of a high god with creator implications.[xxxvi]

A Proto-Sinaitic inscription (c. 1500 BC) referenced "El, God of eternity,” underscoring El's eternal, heavenly nature.[xxxvii]

Hurrian texts (c. 1400 BC) refer to “El of the covenant” and “El the judge,” portraying him as the moral overseer with over other gods.[xxxviii] In Ugaritic texts (c. 1400–1200 BC), El is called “Creator of creatures” and “Father of the gods” and “Father of man,” emphasizing his role as the ultimate creator and heaven-dwelling patriarch.[xxxix]

These inscriptions dramatically demonstrate a widespread pre-Jewish belief in El as the transcendent Creator God of Heaven.

Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–478 BC)
Xenophanes, a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher in Asia Minor, traveled widely and critiqued the religious and cultural norms of his time. He challenged the anthropomorphic polytheism of Greek mythology, rejecting gods with human flaws like those portrayed in Homer.

Xenophanes proposed a single, supreme God who is eternal, unchanging, and all-powerful, described as “neither in form like unto mortals nor in thought,” governing the cosmos through intellect alone. This God, Xenophanes wrote, “all of him sees, all of him thinks, all of him hears,” and “without toil he shakes all things by the thought of his mind,” remaining “always in the same place, moving not at all.”[xl] “The cosmos itself, with its unchanging cycles and vastness, bears witness to a single divine mind, greater than all mortal thought.”[xli]

He further stated, “One God, greatest among gods and men, rules all things, his power seen in the order of the cosmos.”[xlii] “There is one God, eternal and unbegotten, who governs all things by the power of his thought, seen in the harmony of the cosmos.”[xliii]

Xenophanes ridiculed the absurdity of polytheism, which projects human qualities onto deities. “But mortals suppose that gods are born, wear their own clothes and have a voice and body,” and “Ethiopians say that their gods are snub-nosed and black; Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired,” highlighting the absurdity of anthropomorphic depictions.[xliv]

Conclusion
God’s eternal power and divine nature can be seen by all people from the creation. This natural revelation complements the complete knowledge of God in the Scriptures, and helps show the need for the Gospel.

[i] Luther’s Works, vol. 1, Lectures on Genesis, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan, trans. George V. Schick (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958).

[ii] Ibid., vol. 3.

[iii] Lectures on Galatians, Luther's Works, vol. 26, edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Walter A. Hansen (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1963), p. 399.

[iv] Ibid.

[v] Lectures on Romans, Luther’s Works, vol. 25, ed. Hilton C. Oswald, trans. Walter G. Tillmanns and Jacob A. O. Preus (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1972), pp. 151-152.

[vi] Ibid., p. 238.

[vii] Lectures on Jonah, Luther’s Works, vol. 19, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1975), pp. 53–54.

[viii] Ibid.

[ix] Ibid.

[x] Ibid.

[xi] Martin Chemnitz, Loci Theologici, trans. J. A. O. Preus, vol. 1 (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1989), p. 30.

[xii] Ibid., p. 29.

[xiii] Ibid., pp. 27–28.

[xiv] Martin Chemnitz, Loci Theologici, Part I, trans. J. A. O. Preus, vol. 7 (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2008), p. 62.

[xv] Ibid.

[xvi] Ibid., p. 63.

[xvii] Johann Gerhard, Sacred Meditations and Loci Theologici, trans. Carl L. Beckwith, vol. 1 (Concordia Publishing House, 2013), p. 67.

[xviii] Johann Gerhard, Loci Theologici, Jena: Typis et Sumptibus Tobiae Steinmanni, 1610, Locus II [De Cognitione Dei].

[xix] Johann Gerhard, Theological Commonplaces: On the Nature of God and on the Most Holy Mystery of the Trinity (Exegesis II), ed. Benjamin T. G. Mayes, trans. Richard J. Dinda (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2010), p. 35.

[xx] Ibid., p. 35.

[xxi] Ibid, p. 34.

[xxii] Ibid., p. 36.

[xxiii] Ibid., pp. 35, 37–38.

[xxiv] Sir Wallace Budge, Egyptian Religion (Barnes & Noble reprint, 1994), p. 22.

[xxv] Ibid., p. 25.

[xxvi] Ibid., p. 26.

[xxvii] Ibid. p. 27.

[xxviii] Ibid. p. 27-28.

[xxix] E.A. Wallis Budge, The Teaching of Amen-em-apt and Ptah-hotep (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1912), p. 47.

[xxx] A.L. Oppenheim, trans., Ancient Near Eastern Texts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), p. 267.

[xxxi] “Temple Hymn to Kesh,” trans. Å. Sjöberg, The Collection of the Sumerian Temple Hymns (Locust Valley, NY: J.J. Augustin, 1969), p. 23.

[xxxii] Ibid., p. 25.

[xxxiii] B.R. Foster, trans., Before the Muses (CDL Press, 2005), p. 156.

[xxxiv] Charles F. Pfeiffer, Ras Shamra and the Bible (New York: Macmillan, 1922), p. 35.

[xxxv] Anna Elise Zernecke, "Nomina nuda tenemus: The God Elyon," in The Variety of Local Religious Systems in the Ancient Near East in the First Millennium BCE, ed. Corinne Castel, Fabien Quantin, and Silvano Alfonsi (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2023), pp. 75-92.

[xxxvi] Rainer Albertz and Rüdiger Schmitt, Family and Household Religion in Ancient Israel and the Levant, (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns), 2012.

[xxxvii] William Foxwell Albright, The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and Their Decipherment, Harvard Theological Studies 22. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 1966.

[xxxviii] Sarah Iles Johnston, ed., Ancient Religions (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 2007.

[xxxix] Marvin H. Pope, El in the Ugaritic Texts, Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1955).

[xl] Jonathan Barnes, trans., Early Greek Philosophy (New York: Penguin Classics, 2001), pp. 40–46.

[xli] Ibid., p. 44.

[xlii] Hermann Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (Berlin: Weidmann, 1903), Fragment 21B23, p. 132.

[xliii] Ibid, Fragment 21B24, p. 133.

[xliv] Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, pp. 40–46.

Britton Weimer (JD, University of Minnesota Law School) is a confessional Lutheran (WELS) and a commercial attorney. He is the co-author of Britton Weimer and Paul Johnson, Searching for Answers: The Unquenchable Thirst (AMG Publishers 2002).